Publications, Presentations, and News Database

Environment, Safety, and Health

Search the Thin-film Resource Database for more articles, news, and reports.

ES&H addresses the impact of thin-film technologies on the environment and on the health and safety of people, especially the plant workers who may be exposed to materials. The use and disposal of cadmium and selenium are particularly important.

See also Cadmium Telluride Web site and Brookhaven National Laboratory Environment, Safety, Health and Quality Directorate.

Press Releases, Articles, Pictures/Tables/Figures, Other Items

Journal Articles

Conference Papers

Post Date	09/15/2006
Title	PAPERS WERE PRESENTED AT THE 21ST EUROPEAN PHOTOVOLTAIC SOLAR ENERGY CONFERENCE, DRESDEN, GERMANY, 4-8 SEPTEMBER 2006
Link	(MS Word 27 KB)
Authors	M. J. De Wild-Scholten, et al.
Description	ES&H papers available from http://www.ecn.nl/publicaties/default.aspx?au=44649
Venue	21st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Dresden, Germany, 4-8 September 2006
Source	Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands
Document Type	Conference Papers (Word document)
Resource Date	09/2006

Post Date	06/14/2006
Title	CDTE PHOTOVOLTAICS: LIFE CYCLE ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE AND COMPARISONS
Link	(PDF 210 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	V. Fthenakis
Description	We discuss the emissions of cadmium throughout all the life stages of CdTe PV modules, from extracting, refining, and purifying the raw materials to producing, using, and disposing or recycling of the modules. Then, we compare these emissions with those in the life cycle of three different types of crystalline Si PV modules. The energy requirement and energy pay back times (EPBT) of CdTe PV modules is considerably shorter than that of crystalline Si modules, although the latter exhibit higher efficiencies. This difference is primarily due to the energy used to process silicon, a fraction of which is derived from fossil fuels, inevitably producing Cd and many other heavy-metal emissions.
Venue	Presented at the European Material Research Society Meeting
Source	N/A
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	06/2006

Post Date	05/05/2006
Title	ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE PRODUCTION
Link	(PDF 88 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	E. A. Alsema
Description	Together with a number of PV companies an extensive effort has been made to collect Life Cycle Inventory data that represents the current status of production technology for crystalline silicon modules. The new data cover all processes from silicon feedstock production to cell and module manufacturing. All commercial wafer technologies are covered, that is multi- and monocrystalline wafers as well as ribbon technology. The presented data should be representative for the technology status in 2004, although for monocrystalline Si crystallisation further improvement of the data quality is recommended. On the basis of the new data a Life Cycle Assessment has been performed, which shows that c-Si PV systems are in a good position to compete with other energy technologies. Energy Pay-Back Times of 1.7-2.7 yr are found for South-European locations, while life-cycle CO2
Venue	Presented at 13th CIRP Intern. Conf. on Life Cycle Engineering, Leuven, 31 May- 2 June 2006
Source	Utrecht University
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	05/2006

Post Date	05/05/2006
Title	LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF SOLAR MODULE RECYCLING PROCESS
Link	(PDF 2.2 MB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	A. Muller
Description	Since June 2003 Deutsche Solar AG is operating a recycling plant for modules with crystalline solar silicon cells. The aim of the process is to recover the silicon wafers so that they can be reprocessed and integrated in modules again. The aims of the Life Cycle Analysis of the mentioned process are (i) the verification if the process is beneficial regarding environmental aspects, (ii) the comparison to other end-of-life scenarios, (iii) the ability to include the end-oflife phase of modules in future LCA of photovoltaic modules. The results show that the recycling process makes good ecological sense, because the environmental burden during the production phase of reusable components is higher than the burden due to the recycling process. Moreover the Energy Pay Back Time of modules with recycled cells was determined.
Venue	Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. Vol. 895 2006 Materials Research Society 0895-G03-07.1
Source	Deutsche Solar
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	2006

Post Date	05/05/2006
Title	ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF CRYSTALLINE SILICON PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE PRODUCTION
Link	(PDF 100 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	E. A. Alsema
Description	Together with a number of PV companies an extensive effort has been made to collect Life Cycle Inventory data that represents the current status of production technology for crystalline silicon modules. The new data cover all processes from silicon feedstock production to cell and module manufacturing. All commercial wafer technologies are covered, that is multiand monocrystalline wafers as well as ribbon technology. The presented data should be representative for the technology status in 2004, although for monocrystalline Si crystallisation further improvement of the data quality is recommended. On the basis of the new data it is shown that c-Si PV systems are in a good position to compete with other energy technologies. Energy Pay-Back Times of 1.7-2.7 yr are found for South-European locations, while life-cycle CO emissions are in the 30-46 g/kWh range. Clear perspectives exist for further improvements of roughly 40-50%.
Venue	Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. Vol. 895 2006 Materials Research Society
Source	Utrecht University
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	2006

Post Date	12/08/2005
Title	PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM G-LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS, MRS FALL MEETING, BOSTON, MS, NOV. 29-DEC 2. 2005, IN PRESS
Link	(PDF 250 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	R. Dones
Description	European PV systems Swiss LCA
Venue	December MRS
Source	Paul Scherer Institute
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	11/2005

Post Date	12/08/2005
Title	ENERGY USE AND GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS IN THE LIFE CYCLE OF THIN FILM CDTE PHOTOVOLTAICS
Link	(PDF 291 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	V. Fthenakis
Description	With a growing public interest in renewable energy sources, significant attention is paid to the life cycle analysis (LCA) of photovoltaic (PV) devices. Thin film cadmium telluride (CdTe) modules are one of the most promising new, thin-film PV technologies. In its early stage of commercialization, the life cycle environmental performance of a CdTe solar cell is relatively unknown, as the life cycle energy use and emission data on the production stage of cell materials as Cd and Te are scarce and new, advanced vapor deposition processes have prevailed [1]. Early studies indicate that manufacturing of CdTe modules would require 3-4 times less primary energy per m2
Venue	Proceedings of Symposium G-Life Cycle Analysis, MRS Fall Meeting, Boston, MS, Nov. 29-Dec 2. 2005
Source	Brookhaven National Laboratory
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	11/2005

Post Date	10/20/2005
Title	LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
Link	(PDF 144 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	V. Fthenakis
Description	Life Cycle Analyses (LCA) at BNL show that: i) The BOS of an optimized installation has an energy payback time (EPBT) of only 0.4 years for average US insolation, which is 70% lower than previously reported estimates. ii) The EPBT of CdTe modules produced and used in the U.S. is 0.85 years. iii) The life-cycle CO2 emissions of the nuclear fuel cycle in the U.S. are about the same as those in the PV cycle; this contrasts European studies showing CO2 emissions from nuclear to be 10 lower than those from PV.
Venue	Solar Program Review Meeting 2005
Source	Brookhaven National Laboratory
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	10/2005

Post Date	10/20/2005
Title	A REVIEW OF RISKS IN THE SOLAR ELECTRIC LIFE-CYCLE
Link	(PDF 642 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Authors	V. Fthenakis, H. C. Kim
Description	Early studies of risks in the life cycle of solar electric technologies do not represent their current stage of development. Our study updates the data used in previous studies and also accounts for the full life-cycle of photovoltaics. We show that the non-radiological risks of the solar electric- and nuclear-life cycles are approximately equal. This contradicts the conclusions of some earlier studies according to which the former presented much greater occupational and public non-radiological risks than the latter.
Venue	Brussels 2005
Source	Brookhaven National Laboratory
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	10/2005

Post Date	06/14/2005
Title	ENERGY AND LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF THIN FILM CDTE PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES
Link	(PDF 360 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	M. Raugei
Description	topic of this paper is the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of modern CdTe PV modules. The analysis was performed within the framework of the European research project PVACCEPT, and is based on actual production data provided by the former project partner ANTEC Solar GmbH. This latter point makes the present LCA especially worthy of attention as a preliminary indication of the future environmental impact that the upscaling of CdTe module production may entail. The analysis is performed according to the recommendations of ISO norms 14040 and updates, and makes use of an original multi-criteria approach named SUMMA. The performance of the analysed CdTe system is also compared to other examples of advanced PV systems based on different technologies (CIS and mc-Si), which were also part of the PVACCEPT project. Results clearly show an overall very promising picture for CdTe technology, which is found to be characterised by favourable environmental impact indicators (e.g. 60g(abiotic matter)/kWh, 32 g(CO2-eq)/kWh and energy payback of 0.9 yrs.
Venue	20th EU PVSC Barcelona
Source	University of Siena
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	06/2005

Post Date	06/13/2005
Title	THE REAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF CRYSTALLINE SILICON PV MODULES: AN ANALYSIS BASED ON UP-TO-DATE MANUFACTURERS DATA
Link	(PDF 85 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Authors	E. A. Alsema, M. J. De Wild-Scholten
Description	Together with a number of PV companies an extensive effort has been made to collect Life Cycle Inventory data that represents the current status of production technology for crystalline silicon modules. The new data covers all processes from silicon feedstock production to cell and module manufacturing. All commercial wafer technologies are covered, that is multi- and monocrystalline wafers as well as ribbon technology. The presented data should be representative for the technology status in 2004, although for monocrystalline Si crystallisation further improvement of the data quality is recommended. On the basis of the new data it is shown that PV systems on the basis of c-Si technology are in a good positionto compete with other energy technologies. Energy Pay-Back Times of 1.5-2.5 yr are found for South-European locations, while life-cycle CO2 emission is in the 25-40 g/kWh range. Clear perspectives exist for further improvements with roughly 25%.
Venue	20th European PVSC
Sources	Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands; Utrecht University
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	06/2005

Post Date	06/13/2005
Title	IMPLICATIONS OF EUROPEAN ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
Link	(PDF 434 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Authors	M. J. De Wild-Scholten, K. Wambach, E. A. Alsema, A. Jager-Waldau
Description	An overview is given of European environmental legislation which is effective now or proposed and which may have implications for the photovoltaic industry. The focus will be on legislation, which has been implemented already in national law, like the WEEE (waste electrical and electronic equipment)- and ROHS Reach (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals), F-gases (regulation on certain fluorinated greenhouse gases) and EuP (eco-design requirements for energy-using products). A change of the module design, with the research, development, implementation and certification necessary to be able to produce photovoltaic systems that comply with such legislation, may be very time-consuming and expensive. Therefore a pro-active approach by the PV community is desirable. Environmental life cycle thinking and eco-design is becoming increasingly important as part of the European product and waste policy and will have its impact on the PV industry as well. Design-for-recycling must be encouraged to allow for an easy, cost-effective disassembly, with a high retrieval of for instance the precious crystalline silicon solar cells. A closed production cycle, i.e. guaranteed take back system, would probably prevent the commission as well as member states to impose legislative measures.
Venue	20th European PVSC Barcelona
Sources	Deutsche Solar; Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	06/2005

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF PHOTOVOLTAICS: PERCEPTIONS, NEEDS, AND CHALLENGES
Link	(PDF 222 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Authors	E. A. Alsema, M. J. De Wild-Scholten, V. Fthenakis
Description	High impact publications recently depicted PV technologies as having higher external environmental costs than those of nuclear energy and natural-gas-fueled power plants. These assessments are based on old data and unbalanced assumptions, and they illustrate the need for LCA data describing the continuously improving photovoltaic systems and the inclusion of social benefits in this comparison.
Venue	IEEE Photovoltaic Specialistis Conference, Jan. 3-7, 2005, Orlando, FL
Sources	Brookhaven National Laboratory; Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands; Utrecht University
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	01/2005

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF EMISSIONS AND REDISTRIBUTION OF ELEMENTS IN CDTE PV MODULES DURING FIRES
Link	(PDF 246 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Authors	V. Fthenakis, et al.
Description	This study is based on glass-glass CdTe PV modules which are the only ones in the market. Pieces of commercial CdTe photovoltaic (PV) modules, sizes 3.8 cm by 30.5 cm, were heated to temperatures up to 1100ºC to simulate exposure to residential and commercial building fires. The temperature rate and duration in these experiments were defined according to standard UL and ASTM test protocols. Three different types of analysis were performed: measurements of sample weight loss as a function of temperature; analyses of Cd in the fire emissions; and analysis of Cd distribution in the molten glass, using Synchrotron x-ray fluorescence microprobe. It was found that a small amount of cadmium compounds (0.4 to 0.6% of the Cd content) was carried to the edges by the flow of EVA decomposition products. The pathway for this loss was through the perimeter of the sample before the two sheets of glass fused together. In actual size PV modules, the ratio of perimeter to area is 13.5 times smaller; thus the actual Cd loss during fires would be insignificant (<0.04% of the Cd content).
Venue	European PV Solar Energy Conference, Paris, France, June 7-11, 2004; Paper 5BV.1.32
Source	Brookhaven National Laboratory
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	06/2004

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	CDTE PV: REAL AND PERCEIVED EHS RISKS
Link	(PDF 216 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Authors	V. Fthenakis, K. Zweibel
Description	As CdTe photovoltaics reached commercialization, questions were raised about potential cadmium emissions from CdTe PV modules. Some have attacked the CdTe PV technology as unavoidably polluting the environment, and made comparisons of hypothetical emissions from PV modules to cadmium emissions from coal-fired power plants. This paper gives an overview of the technical issues pertinent to these questions and further explores the potential of environmental, health, and safety (EHS) risks during production, use, and decommissioning of CdTe PV modules. The following issues are discussed: (a) the physical and toxicological properties of CdTe, (b) comparisons of Cd use in CdTe PV with its use in other technologies and products, and (c) the possibility of CdTe releases from PV modules. cells.
Venue	NCPV and Solar Program Review Meeting 2003 NREL/CD-520-33586 Page 413
Sources	Brookhaven National Laboratory; National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	2003

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN THIN FILM MANUFACTURING
Link	(PDF 50 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Authors	E. A. Alsema, et al.
Description	An investigation is made of Health, Safety and Environmental (HSE) aspects for the manufacturing, use and decommissioning of CdTe, CIS and a-Si modules. Issues regarding energy requirements, resource availability, emissions of toxic materials, occupational health and safety and module waste treatment are reviewed. Waste streams in thin film module manufacturing are analyzed in detail and treatment methods are discussed. Finally the technological options for thin film module recycling are investigated. It is concluded that there are no serious HSE bottlenecks for upscaling to production levels of 500 MWp/yr and that adequate methods are available for treatment of the manufacturing wastes. However, on the longer term issues regarding CdTe and CIS module waste treatment, In and Te resource availibility and module recycling need to adressed. Appropriate recycling methods for CdTe and CIS modules do not exist at present but the problem is being adressed by the PV industry.
Venue
Source	Utrecht University
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	2000

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	FIRST SOLAR'S CDTE MODULE MANUFACTURING EXPERIENCE; ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH AND SAFETY RESULTS
Link	(PDF 203 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Authors	J. R. Bohland, K. Smigielski
Description	Consistent with First Solar's proactive cadmium-containing material management practices such as CdTe PV module recycling, this paper reviews our activities and results in preventing environmental exposures and human health risks associated with cadmium materials processing during module manufacturing. Industrial hygiene data for manufacturing activities are presented and engineering controls are discussed. Medical monitoring results comparing recently hired to long-term employees and smokers is reported. Environmental releases to air, water and land have been quantified.
Venue
Source	First Solar, Toledo, OH
Document Type	Conference Papers (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	1999

Presentations

Post Date	09/02/2005
Title	PV PAST THE TIPPING POINT
Link	(PowerPoint 31.8 MB)
Author	K. Zweibel
Description	Photovoltaics is growing rapidly, coming down in cost, and technical progress is substantial. We can be assured that PV costs will come down enough to provide electricity at an energy signifiant level.
Venue	Presntation at NREL to Norwegian StudyTour sponsored by CSM August 31, 2005
Source	National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Document Type	Presentation (Powerpoint presentation)
Resource Date	08/31/2005

Post Date	07/28/2005
Title	2002 TO 2005 THIN FILM PARTNERSHIP BUDGET TRENDS
Link	(PowerPoint 38 KB)
Author	K. Zweibel
Description	Budget in thin films for subcontracts is down 36% since 2002.
Venue
Source	National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Document Type	Presentation (Powerpoint presentation)
Resource Date	07/2005

Post Date	04/22/2005
Title	PAST AND PREDICTED THIN FILM MODULE PRODUCTION IN THE US BY TECHNOLOGY
Link	(PowerPoint 45 KB)
Author	K. Zweibel
Description	Annual MWp/yr 2000-2011 by technology
Venue
Source	National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Document Type	Presentation (Powerpoint presentation)
Resource Date	04/22/2004

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	PV MODULE RECYCLING IN THE US
Link	(PowerPoint 3.8 MB)
Authors	V. Fthenakis, K. Zweibel
Description	Recycling today and tomorrow.
Venue	EU Workshop "Waste Challenge"
Sources	Brookhaven National Laboratory; National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Document Type	Presentation (Powerpoint presentation)
Resource Date	03/2004

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	PV MODULE RECYCLING IN THE US
Link	(PDF 600 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Authors	V. Fthenakis, K. Zweibel
Description	Recycling today and tomorrow
Venue	EIA Workshop
Source	N/A
Document Type	Presentation (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	03/2004

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	TRAPPING ALMOST ALL CD IN GLASS ENCAPSULATION IN THE EVENT OF A RESIDENTIAL FIRE: DETAILED EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
Link	(PowerPoint 45.7 MB)
Author	V. Fthenakis
Description
Venue
Source	Brookhaven National Laboratory
Document Type	Presentation (Powerpoint presentation)
Resource Date	2004

Annual/Final Reports

Post Date	06/02/2006
Title	DOE SOLAR ENERGY TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM FY2005 ANNUAL REPORT
Link	(PDF 5.2 MB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	N/A
Description	The majority of the Program?s budget is allocated to PV research and development (R&D). All PV devices convert sunlight directly into electricity. However, there is a variety of materials and processes for creating PV devices, each with its own benefits and drawbacks. The major trade-off is between cost and sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiency?higher efficiency typically translates into higher cost. Program participants consistently achieve world-record efficiencies for different types of PV, but each effort has the same ultimate goal: optimizing cost and efficiency to produce the least expensive end-use electricity.
Venue	DOE/GO-102006-2314May 2006
Source	National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Document Type	Annual Report (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	05/2006

Post Date	02/07/2006
Title	DOE FY2007 CONGRESSIONAL BUDGET REQUEST FOR ENERGY SUPPLY AND CONSERVATION
Link	(PDF 3.4 MB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	N/A
Description	Appropriation Account Summary..........................................................................................................3 Appropriation Language ........................................................................................................................7 Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy ..........................................................................................11 Electricity Delivery & Energy Reliability .........................................................................................511 Nuclear Energy .................................................................................................................................571 Environment, Safety and Health ........................................................................................................705 Legacy Management.........................................................................................................................733
Venue	The Department of Energy?s FY 2007 Congressional Budget justification is available on the Office of Chief Financial Officer/CFO homepage at http://www.mbe.doe.gov/budget
Source	Department of Energy
Document Type	Annual Report (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	02/2006

Post Date	02/01/2006
Title	THIN FILM PV PARTNERSHIP
Link	(MS Word 393 KB)
Author	K. Zweibel
Description	Objectives Support the near-term transition to first-time manufacturing and commercial introduction of reliable thin-film a-Si, CIS, CdTe, and film silicon modules. Build a technology base upon which these advanced PV technologies can successfully improve manufacturing and continue to progress in terms of performance, reliability, and reduced cost for products meant to compete in the PV marketplace. Sustain innovation to support progress toward ambitious long-term PV cost and performance goals (e.g., 15% modules at under $50/m2 and capable of lasting 30 years) appropriate for cost-competitive PV electricity. Accomplishments Four JOULE milestones were met. Two Technology Partners broke ground on major manufacturing expansions (First Solar 50 MWp, and Uni-Solar 25 MWp). Production of thin films in the United States grew from 12 MWp in 2003 to an estimated >40 MWp in 2005. Future Directions � Continue to address key issues supporting the transition to successful first-time manufacturing or major production expansion in each thin film. � Significantly reduce CIS and CdTe layer thicknesses in cells and support transfer of this to manufacturing. � Direct CdTe research toward higher voltage. � Investigate nano-crystalline bottom cells for thin-film silicon multijunctions.___________________________________________
Venue	DOE NREL Annual Report
Source	National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Document Type	Annual Report (Word document)
Resource Date	02/2006

Post Date	02/02/2005
Title	2003 DOE PV PEER REVIEW
Link	(PDF 716 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	N/A
Description	Review of DOE PV activities in 2003
Venue	US DOE EERE
Source	US DOE
Document Type	Annual Report (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	09/30/2003

Post Date	01/03/2006
Title	ENERGY PAY-BACK AND LIFE CYCLE CO2 EMISSIONS OF THE BOS IN AN OPTIMIZED 3.5 MW PV INSTALLATION
Link	tepbos2005
Author	J. Mason
Description	This study is a life-cycle analysis of the balance of system (BOS) components of the 3.5 MWp multi-crystalline PV installation at Tucson Electric Power's (TEP) Springerville, AZ field PV plant. TEP instituted an innovative PV installation program guided by design optimization and cost minimization. The advanced design of the PV structure incorporated the weight of the PV modules as support, thereby eliminating the need for concrete foundations. The estimate of the life-cycle energy requirements embodied in the BOS is 543 MJ/m2, a 71% reduction from those of an older central plant; the corresponding life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions are 29 kg CO2-eq. /m2. From field measurements, the energy payback time (EPT) of the BOS is 0.21 years for the actual location of this plant, and 0.37 years for average US insolation/temperature conditions. This is a great improvement from the EPT of 2 years estimated for an older central plant. The total cost of the balance of system components was $940 US per kWp of installed PV, another milestone in improvement. These results were verified with data from different databases and further tested with sensitivity- and data-uncertainty analyses. Key Words: PV plant; balance of system; life cycle assessment, energy payback, GHG emissions
Venue	website
Source	Tucson Electric
Document Type	Final Report (Hypertext link)
Resource Date	2005

Post Date	04/21/2005
Title	PVACCEPT
Link	PVACCEPT
Author	N/A
Description	PVACCEPT is a German-Italian research project, which was funded by the European Commission within the programme "Innovation and Small and Medium Sized Enterprises". The project aimed at designing and developing marketable solar modules for electricity generation, which are designed in a way to enable their sensitive and inconspicuous integration into old buildings, historical sites, and protected landscapes. The project has officially started on 1st July 2001, and is concluded since 31st December 2004.
Venue
Sources	University of Arts, Berlin; University of Siena
Document Type	Final Report (Hypertext link)
Resource Date	12/2004

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	WORKSHOP ON LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS AND RECYCLING OF SOLAR MODULES - THE "WASTE" CHALLENGE
Link	(PDF 12.5 MB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	A. Jager-Waldau
Description	First, to rise the awareness of the Photovoltaic Community about the European Directives 2002/96/EC on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (ROHS), which have to be implemented by the Member States in 2004. These directives will have a significant impact on the PV industry, not only because the future waste classification of PV modules is an important issue, but also the sustainability and the green image of the PV industry as a whole has to be considered. The second focus was on Life Cycle Assessment the correct evaluation of External Costs and the Recycling of Solar Modules, which will help to avoid these problems. The workshop gave an overview about the current scientific and political discussion, identified problems and showed the way for possible solutions.
Venue	European Commission EUR 21101 EN
Source	European Commission Joint Research Centre
Document Type	Final Report (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	03/19/2004

Post Date	01/06/2006
Title	REFERENCE GUIDE FOR HAZARD ANALYSIS IN PV FACILITIES
Link	(PDF 1.8 MB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	V. Fthenakis
Description	Photovoltaic manufacturing facilities use toxic, corrosive or flammable substances, which, if not handled properly can present environmental, health and safety (EHS) risks. Although the amounts of hazardous substances used in the PV industry are far smaller than those used in the chemical industry, such substances can present EHS hazards. As PV manufacturing is scaled-up to meet a growing demand, preserving the safe and friendly to the environment nature of PV becomes even more important. This paper presents systematic methods of hazard evaluation and accident prevention that are available to the industry. These methods include checklists, what if analysis, hazard and operability analysis (HazOp), failure modes and effects analysis (FEMA), event tree analysis, fault tree analysis (FTA), layers of protection analysis (LOPA), safety analysis reviews (SAR) and security risk analysis. The strengths and weaknesses of each method are discussed, and sample applications in PV manufacturing are presented. The costs of conducting hazard analyses and implementing associated corrective actions were only moderate; the expected benefits by far surpass the associated costs. Such analyses, in addition to enhancing the safety of a facility, they can also lead to improvements in reliability and productivity.
Venue	Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, New York 11973-5000
Source	Brookhaven National Laboratory
Document Type	Final Report (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	09/2003

Post Date	02/07/2005
Title	PV STATUS REPORT 2003
Link	(PDF 671 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	A. Jager-Waldau
Description	Research, Solar Cell Production and Market Implementation in Japan, USA and the European Union.
Venue	European Commission JRC EUR 20850EN
Source	Institute for Environment and Sustainability
Document Type	Final Report (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	09/2003

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF PV POWER SYSTEMS
Link	(PDF 278 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Authors	E. A. Alsema, E. Nieuwlaar
Description	An expert workshop was held as part of the International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power Systems Implementing Agreement Programme, to address these environmental aspects of PV power systems. The objectives of the workshop were: Review/overview of issues and approaches regarding environmental aspects of PV power systems; Enhanced clarity and consensus regarding well-known aspects like Energy Pay-Back Time; Identification of issues of environmental importance regarding PV power systems ('hot spots'); Identification of issues requiring further attention ('white spots');
Venue	IEA PVPS Task 1 Workshop 25-27 June 1997 Utrecht, The Netherlands Report no. 97072
Source	Utrecht University
Document Type	Final Report (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	12/1997

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SOLAR CELL MODULES
Link	(PDF 466 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	E. A. Alsema
Description	multicrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride and copper indium selenide are reviewed with special attention to future expected technology developments. For each module type an assessment is made of the potential environmental impacts in case of large scale implementation of the technology. In principle the entire module life cycle is taken into consideration: from resource mining, via module production and module utilization until module decommissioning and waste handling. In the report for each module type the following aspects are discussed: energy requirements and energy pay-back time, material requirements and resource depletion, environmental emissions, waste handling, possibilities for recycling of modules, occupational health and safety and external safety.
Venue	Report nr. 96074 ISBN 90-73958-17-2 Netherlands Agency for Energy and the Environment (NOVEM)
Source	Utrecht University
Document Type	Final Report (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	08/1996

Press Releases, Articles, Pictures/Tables/Figures, Other Items

Post Date	09/07/2006
Title	A ROAD MAP TO U.S. DECARBONIZATION
Link	shinnarco2
Authors	R. Shinnar, F. Citro
Description	Today, 85% of the United States' energy mix comes from carbon-rich fossil fuels: oil, natural gas, and coal (1). With demand increasing worldwide, existing oil reserves could peak within 20 years (2), followed by natural gas and coal. Growing fuel use is increasing CO2 and CH4 emissions and the risk of global warming. The United States has responded by sponsoring research into alternative energy (3). However, because research success is not predictable, an effective plan must be based on proven technologies. We propose to switch our economy slowly (over 30 to 50 or more years) to nonfossil energy sources by using proven technologies and available, expandable distribution systems.
Venue	Science 1 September 2006:Vol. 313. no. 5791, pp. 1243 - 1244DOI: 10.1126/science.1130338
Source	Science
Document Type	Article (Hypertext link)
Resource Date	09/01/2006

Post Date	05/02/2006
Title	CLOSING THE LOOP ON CADMIUM
Link	(PDF 347 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	T. R. Hawkins
Description	In this study, the major flows of cadmium in the U.S. economy are quantified and the primary sinks are identified to gauge the need for additional policy to minimize the potential human health and ecosystem risks associated with these flows. Because of the concurrent occurrence of cadmium and zinc in ore, we also consider the relevant portions of the material cycle of zinc.
Venue	ecomed publishers (Verlagsgruppe H�thig Jehle Rehm GmbH), D-86899 Landsberg and Tokyo ? Mumbai ? Seoul ? Melbourne ? Paris Int J LCA 11 (1) 38 ? 48 (2006)
Source	Green Design Institute
Document Type	Article (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	2006

Post Date	11/17/2005
Title	HOW THE PV INDUSTRY IS TO MINIMIZING THE HAZARDS OF SOLAR CELL MANUFACTURE
Link	fthenakisarticle2005november
Author	A. Cameron
Description	As PV manufacturing looks to make the step up from megawatt to gigawatt production, environmental issues arising from the manufacture and construction of solar cells need to be tackled head on in order to ensure that photovoltaic power can continue to represent itself as a green technology. Alasdair Cameron examines some of the issues.
Venue	Renewable Energy World
Source	Renewable Energy World
Document Type	Article (Hypertext link)
Resource Date	11/17/2005

Post Date	02/07/2005
Title	PV INDUSTRY WANTS EXEMPTION FROM NEW REGULATIONS ON WASTE
Link	(MS Word 32 KB)
Author	N/A
Description	The solar PV industry in Europe wants to be excluded from new regulations concerning hazardous substances. New restrictions on waste and the use of hazardous substances in electrical equipment will be implemented by member states of the European Union this year, and will restrict the use of lead and cadmium. The metals may be present in small amounts in PV modules.
Venue	Refocus Weekly
Source	N/A
Document Type	Article (Word document)
Resource Date	07/28/2004

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND SAFETY ISSUES IN PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGIES: A SUMMARY (DRAFT)
Link	(MS Word 40 KB)
Author	V. Fthenakis
Description	As with any energy source or product, there are environmental, health and safety (EHS) hazards associated with the manufacture, use, and disposal of solar cells. Although the PV industry uses far smaller amounts of toxic- and flammable-substances than many other industries, its use of hazardous chemicals can entail occupational and environmental hazards. Addressing EHS concerns is the focus of numerous studies at Brookhaven National Laboratory, under the auspices of the US Department of Energy's National Photovoltaic Program. More than 150 articles highlighting these studies are posted in our bibliography. Below is a summary of EHS issues pertaining to the manufacture of crystalline-Si, amorphous silicon, CuInSe2 and CdTe solar cells. We will promptly send the full articles to the reader who wants more details.
Venue	draft
Source	Brookhaven National Laboratory
Document Type	Article (Word document)
Resource Date	2004

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	OVERVIEW OF POTENTIAL PV HAZARDS
Link	(PDF 136 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	V. Fthenakis
Description	The PV industry uses toxic and flammable substances, although in smaller amounts than many other industries, and use of hazardous chemicals can involve occupational and environmental hazards. Addressing EHS concerns is the focus of numerous studies of the National Photovoltaic EHS Assistance Center at Brookhaven National Laboratory, which operates under the auspices of the US Department of Energy (DOE). More than 150 articles highlighting these studies are posted in the Center's website (http:// www.pv.bnl.gov). This work has been done in cooperation with the US DOE PV Program and the US PV industry, which takes EHS issues very seriously and reacts proactively to concerns. Below is a summary of EHS issues pertaining to the manufacture of crystalline silicon (x-Si), amorphous silicon (a-Si), copper indium diselenide (CIS), copper indium gallium diselenide (CGS), gallium arsenide (GaAs) and cadmium telluride (CdTe), which are currently commercially available.
Venue	Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications
Source	Brookhaven National Laboratory
Document Type	Article (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	2004

Post Date	11/01/2005
Title	PV PAYBACK
Link	knapp_shell_cis_energy_payback
Authors	K. E. Knapp, T. Jester
Description	Our study examined energy costs for two types of Siemens PV modules?single-crystalline silicon (SC-Si) and thin film copper indium diselenide (CIS). Crystalline silicon modules achieve an energy break-even in a little over three years. The energy payback time for thin film copper indium diselenide modules in full production is just under two years. Over their lifetime, these solar panels generate nine to seventeen times the energy required to produce them.
Venue	Home Power #80 ? December 2000 / January 2001
Source	Shell Solar Industries
Document Type	Article (Hypertext link)
Resource Date	12/2000

Post Date	02/10/2005
Title	TELLURIUM
Link	(PDF 54 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	R. D. Brown
Description	Tellurium is a relatively rare element, tied for 71st place although they are often referred to as metals when in with platinum and palladium in rank of crustal abundance. It elemental form. Tellurium was first identified in 1782 in is in the same chemical family as oxygen, sulfur, selenium, Transylvanian gold ore (Azimov, 1994, p. 260). For more and polonium: oxygen and sulfur are nonmetals, polonium is than a century, tellurium was an experimental material having a metal, and selenium and tellurium are semiconductors...
Venue	USGS
Source	US Dept Interior
Document Type	Article (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	1999

Post Date	12/12/2005
Title	PV ENERGY PAYBACK AND GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS: 2004 STATUS
Link	(PDF 204 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Authors	E. A. Alsema, V. Fthenakis
Description	2004 status of energy payback and CO2 and other GHG emissions for PV modules and systems
Venue	FAQ sheet
Sources	Brookhaven National Laboratory; Utrecht University
Document Type	Picture/Table/Figure (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	12/05/2005

Post Date	01/06/2006
Title	PV ES&H CHECKLIST
Link	(Excel 60 KB)
Author	V. Fthenakis
Description	CHECKLIST OF SUGGESTED SAFE PRACTICES FOR THE STORAGE, DISTRIBUTION, USE AND DISPOSALOF TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS GASES IN PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL PRODUCTION
Venue
Source	Brookhaven National Laboratory
Document Type	Picture/Table/Figure (Excel spreadsheet)
Resource Date	2005

Post Date	02/07/2005
Title	THE ISSUE: LAND AREA
Link	(PowerPoint 31 KB)
Author	K. Zweibel
Description	PV is the best way to use a renewable resource in terms of minimizing land area concerns and impacts.
Venue
Source	National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Document Type	Picture/Table/Figure (Powerpoint presentation)
Resource Date	2004

Post Date	02/08/2005
Title	CADMIUM IN COAL
Link	(Excel 99 KB)
Author	V. Fthenakis
Description	EPRI summary of Cd in coal.
Venue	PISCES database
Source	EPRI
Document Type	Picture/Table/Figure (Excel spreadsheet)
Resource Date	01/14/2002

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	PLANT THAT HYPER-ACCUMULATES CADMIUM DISCOVERED
Link	(MS Word 28 KB)
Author	N/A
Description	A perennial plant called Hakusan-hatazao in Japanese (Arabis gemmifera) can absorb and accumulate high levels of cadmium (Cd) from the soil.
Venue	JFS
Source	Fujita Corporation
Document Type	Press Release (Word document)
Resource Date	07/17/2004

Post Date	02/07/2005
Title	WASTE DIRECTIVES AND THEIR IMPACT TO THE EU PV INDUSTRY
Link	(PDF 25 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	N/A
Description	The European Directives 2002/96/EC on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (ROHS) have to be implemented by the Member States in 2004 and will have a significant impact on the PV industry.
Venue
Source	European PV Industry Associations (EPIA)
Document Type	Press Release (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	03/20/2004

Post Date	02/09/2005
Title	WASTE DIRECTIVES AND THEIR IMPACT TO THE EU PV INDUSTRY
Link	(PDF 27 KB) Download Acrobat Reader.
Author	N/A
Description	The European Directives 2002/96/EC on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous ubstances in electrical and electronic equipment (ROHS) have to be implemented by the member States in 2004 and will have a significant impact on the PV industry.
Venue	EPIA
Source	Deutsche Solar
Document Type	Press Release (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	03/20/2004

Journal Articles

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ANALYSIS OF CADMIUM IN CDTE PV PRODUCTION
Link	Copyright protected
Author	V. Fthenakis
Description	Material flows and emissions in all the life stages of CdTe PV modules, from extracting refining and purifying raw materials through the production, use, and disposal or recycling of the modules. The prime focus is on cadmium flows and cadmium emissions into the environment. This assessment also compares the cadmium environmental inventories in CdTe PV modules with those of Ni-Cd batteries and of coal fuel in power plants. Previous studies are reviewed and their findings assessed in light of new data.
Venue	Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 8 (2004) 303?334
Source	Brookhaven National Laboratory
Document Type	Journal Articles (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	12/01/2003

Post Date	02/11/2005
Title	PHOTOVOLTAICS: ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES
Link	Copyright protected
Authors	V. Fthenakis, P. D. Moskowitz
Description	The photovoltaic (PV) industry must continue its pro-active approach to prevent accidents and environmental damage, and to sustain PV's inherent environmental, health, and safety (EHS) advantages. This paper presents an overview of EHS issues related to current and emerging PV technologies and gives examples of this pro-active approach. We summarize the hazards related to potential accidental releases of toxic or flammable gases used in photovoltaic cell production, and strategies for reducing such risks (e.g., choosing material and process options which inherently have small risks, and preventing accident-initiating events). Other issues discussed herein include reducing the use of toxic or carcinogenic materials in powder form, managing liquid hazardous waste, and recycling solid waste and spent modules. As the PV industry approaches these issues and mitigation strategies in a vigilant, systematic way, the risk to the industry, the workers, and the public will become minimal. An example is also discussed of environmental benefits from a large scale PV implementation, that is the potential of PV in reducing carbon dioxide emissions.
Venue	Progress in Photovoltaics, Millenium Issue, 8, 27-38,2000
Source	Brookhaven National Laboratory
Document Type	Journal Articles (Adobe Postscript file)
Resource Date	2000

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